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NAME
flex - fast lexical analyzer generator
SYNOPSIS
flex [-bcdfhilnpstvwBFILTV78+? -C[aefFmr] -ooutput -Pprefix
-Sskeleton] [--help --version] [filename ...]
OVERVIEW
This manual describes flex, a tool for generating programs
that perform pattern-matching on text. The manual includes
both tutorial and reference sections:
Description
a brief overview of the tool
Some Simple Examples
Format Of The Input File
Patterns
the extended regular expressions used by flex
How The Input Is Matched
the rules for determining what has been matched
Actions
how to specify what to do when a pattern is matched
The Generated Scanner
details regarding the scanner that flex produces;
how to control the input source
Start Conditions
introducing context into your scanners, and
managing "mini-scanners"
Multiple Input Buffers
how to manipulate multiple input sources; how to
scan from strings instead of files
End-of-file Rules
special rules for matching the end of the input
Miscellaneous Macros
a summary of macros available to the actions
Values Available To The User
a summary of values available to the actions
Interfacing With Yacc
connecting flex scanners together with yacc parsers
Options
flex command-line options, and the "%option"
directive
Performance Considerations
how to make your scanner go as fast as possible
Generating C++ Scanners
the (experimental) facility for generating C++
scanner classes
Incompatibilities With Lex And POSIX
how flex differs from AT&T lex and the POSIX lex
standard
Diagnostics
those error messages produced by flex (or scanners
it generates) whose meanings might not be apparent
Files
files used by flex
Deficiencies / Bugs
known problems with flex
See Also
other documentation, related tools
Author
includes contact information
DESCRIPTION
flex is a tool for generating scanners: programs which
recognized lexical patterns in text. flex reads the given
input files, or its standard input if no file names are
given, for a description of a scanner to generate. The
description is in the form of pairs of regular expressions
and C code, called rules. flex generates as output a C
source file, lex.yy.c, which defines a routine yylex(). This
file is compiled and linked with the -lfl library to produce
an executable. When the executable is run, it analyzes its
input for occurrences of the regular expressions. Whenever
it finds one, it executes the corresponding C code.
SOME SIMPLE EXAMPLES
First some simple examples to get the flavor of how one uses
flex. The following flex input specifies a scanner which
whenever it encounters the string "username" will replace it
with the user's login name:
%%
username printf( "%s", getlogin() );
By default, any text not matched by a flex scanner is copied
to the output, so the net effect of this scanner is to copy
its input file to its output with each occurrence of "user-
name" expanded. In this input, there is just one rule.
"username" is the pattern and the "printf" is the action.
The "%%" marks the beginning of the rules.
Here's another simple example:
int num_lines = 0, num_chars = 0;
%%
\n ++num_lines; ++num_chars;
. ++num_chars;
%%
main()
{
yylex();
printf( "# of lines = %d, # of chars = %d\n",
num_lines, num_chars );
}
This scanner counts the number of characters and the number
of lines in its input (it produces no output other than the
final report on the counts). The first line declares two
globals, "num_lines" and "num_chars", which are accessible
both inside yylex() and in the main() routine declared after
the second "%%". There are two rules, one which matches a
newline ("\n") and increments both the line count and the
character count, and one which matches any character other
than a newline (indicated by the "." regular expression).
A somewhat more complicated example:
/* scanner for a toy Pascal-like language */
%{
/* need this for the call to atof() below */
#include <math.h>
%}
DIGIT [0-9]
ID [a-z][a-z0-9]*
%%
{DIGIT}+ {
printf( "An integer: %s (%d)\n", yytext,
atoi( yytext ) );
}
{DIGIT}+"."{DIGIT}* {
printf( "A float: %s (%g)\n", yytext,
atof( yytext ) );
}
if|then|begin|end|procedure|function {
printf( "A keyword: %s\n", yytext );
}
{ID} printf( "An identifier: %s\n", yytext );
"+"|"-"|"*"|"/" printf( "An operator: %s\n", yytext );
"{"[^}\n]*"}" /* eat up one-line comments */
[ \t\n]+ /* eat up whitespace */
. printf( "Unrecognized character: %s\n", yytext );
%%
main( argc, argv )
int argc;
char **argv;
{
++argv, --argc; /* skip over program name */
if ( argc > 0 )
yyin = fopen( argv[0], "r" );
else
yyin = stdin;
yylex();
}
This is the beginnings of a simple scanner for a language
like Pascal. It identifies different types of tokens and
reports on what it has seen.
The details of this example will be explained in the follow-
ing sections.
FORMAT OF THE INPUT FILE
The flex input file consists of three sections, separated by
a line with just %% in it:
definitions
%%
rules
%%
user code
The definitions section contains declarations of simple name
definitions to simplify the scanner specification, and
declarations of start conditions, which are explained in a
later section.
Name definitions have the form:
name definition
The "name" is a word beginning with a letter or an under-
score ('_') followed by zero or more letters, digits, '_',
or '-' (dash). The definition is taken to begin at the
first non-white-space character following the name and con-
tinuing to the end of the line. The definition can subse-
quently be referred to using "{name}", which will expand to
"(definition)". For example,
DIGIT [0-9]
ID [a-z][a-z0-9]*
defines "DIGIT" to be a regular expression which matches a
single digit, and "ID" to be a regular expression which
matches a letter followed by zero-or-more letters-or-digits.
A subsequent reference to
{DIGIT}+"."{DIGIT}*
is identical to
([0-9])+"."([0-9])*
and matches one-or-more digits followed by a '.' followed by
zero-or-more digits.
The rules section of the flex input contains a series of
rules of the form:
pattern action
where the pattern must be unindented and the action must
begin on the same line.
See below for a further description of patterns and actions.
Finally, the user code section is simply copied to lex.yy.c
verbatim. It is used for companion routines which call or
are called by the scanner. The presence of this section is
optional; if it is missing, the second %% in the input file
may be skipped, too.
In the definitions and rules sections, any indented text or
text enclosed in %{ and %} is copied verbatim to the output
(with the %{}'s removed). The %{}'s must appear unindented
on lines by themselves.
In the rules section, any indented or %{} text appearing
before the first rule may be used to declare variables which
are local to the scanning routine and (after the declara-
tions) code which is to be executed whenever the scanning
routine is entered. Other indented or %{} text in the rule
section is still copied to the output, but its meaning is
not well-defined and it may well cause compile-time errors
(this feature is present for POSIX compliance; see below for
other such features).
In the definitions section (but not in the rules section),
an unindented comment (i.e., a line beginning with "/*") is
also copied verbatim to the output up to the next "*/".
PATTERNS
The patterns in the input are written using an extended set
of regular expressions. These are:
x match the character 'x'
. any character (byte) except newline
[xyz] a "character class"; in this case, the pattern
matches either an 'x', a 'y', or a 'z'
[abj-oZ] a "character class" with a range in it; matches
an 'a', a 'b', any letter from 'j' through 'o',
or a 'Z'
[^A-Z] a "negated character class", i.e., any character
but those in the class. In this case, any
character EXCEPT an uppercase letter.
[^A-Z\n] any character EXCEPT an uppercase letter or
a newline
r* zero or more r's, where r is any regular expression
r+ one or more r's
r? zero or one r's (that is, "an optional r")
r{2,5} anywhere from two to five r's
r{2,} two or more r's
r{4} exactly 4 r's
{name} the expansion of the "name" definition
(see above)
"[xyz]\"foo"
the literal string: [xyz]"foo
\X if X is an 'a', 'b', 'f', 'n', 'r', 't', or 'v',
then the ANSI-C interpretation of \x.
Otherwise, a literal 'X' (used to escape
operators such as '*')
\0 a NUL character (ASCII code 0)
\123 the character with octal value 123
\x2a the character with hexadecimal value 2a
(r) match an r; parentheses are used to override
precedence (see below)
rs the regular expression r followed by the
regular expression s; called "concatenation"
r|s either an r or an s
r/s an r but only if it is followed by an s. The
text matched by s is included when determining
whether this rule is the "longest match",
but is then returned to the input before
the action is executed. So the action only
sees the text matched by r. This type
of pattern is called trailing context".
(There are some combinations of r/s that flex
cannot match correctly; see notes in the
Deficiencies / Bugs section below regarding
"dangerous trailing context".)
^r an r, but only at the beginning of a line (i.e.,
which just starting to scan, or right after a
newline has been scanned).
r$ an r, but only at the end of a line (i.e., just
before a newline). Equivalent to "r/\n".
Note that flex's notion of "newline" is exactly
whatever the C compiler used to compile flex
interprets '\n' as; in particular, on some DOS
systems you must either filter out \r's in the
input yourself, or explicitly use r/\r\n for "r$".
<s>r an r, but only in start condition s (see
below for discussion of start conditions)
<s1,s2,s3>r
same, but in any of start conditions s1,
s2, or s3
<*>r an r in any start condition, even an exclusive one.
<<EOF>> an end-of-file
<s1,s2><<EOF>>
an end-of-file when in start condition s1 or s2
Note that inside of a character class, all regular expres-
sion operators lose their special meaning except escape
('\') and the character class operators, '-', ']', and, at
the beginning of the class, '^'.
The regular expressions listed above are grouped according
to precedence, from highest precedence at the top to lowest
at the bottom. Those grouped together have equal pre-
cedence. For example,
foo|bar*
is the same as
(foo)|(ba(r*))
since the '*' operator has higher precedence than concatena-
tion, and concatenation higher than alternation ('|'). This
pattern therefore matches either the string "foo" or the
string "ba" followed by zero-or-more r's. To match "foo" or
zero-or-more "bar"'s, use:
foo|(bar)*
and to match zero-or-more "foo"'s-or-"bar"'s:
(foo|bar)*
In addition to characters and ranges of characters, charac-
ter classes can also contain character class expressions.
These are expressions enclosed inside [: and :] delimiters
(which themselves must appear between the '[' and ']' of the
character class; other elements may occur inside the charac-
ter class, too). The valid expressions are:
[:alnum:] [:alpha:] [:blank:]
[:cntrl:] [:digit:] [:graph:]
[:lower:] [:print:] [:punct:]
[:space:] [:upper:] [:xdigit:]
These expressions all designate a set of characters
equivalent to the corresponding standard C isXXX function.
For example, [:alnum:] designates those characters for which
isalnum() returns true - i.e., any alphabetic or numeric.
Some systems don't provide isblank(), so flex defines
[:blank:] as a blank or a tab.
For example, the following character classes are all
equivalent:
[[:alnum:]]
[[:alpha:][:digit:]
[[:alpha:]0-9]
[a-zA-Z0-9]
If your scanner is case-insensitive (the -i flag), then
[:upper:] and [:lower:] are equivalent to [:alpha:].
Some notes on patterns:
- A negated character class such as the example "[^A-Z]"
above will match a newline unless "\n" (or an
equivalent escape sequence) is one of the characters
explicitly present in the negated character class
(e.g., "[^A-Z\n]"). This is unlike how many other reg-
ular expression tools treat negated character classes,
but unfortunately the inconsistency is historically
entrenched. Matching newlines means that a pattern
like [^"]* can match the entire input unless there's
another quote in the input.
- A rule can have at most one instance of trailing con-
text (the '/' operator or the '$' operator). The start
condition, '^', and "<<EOF>>" patterns can only occur
at the beginning of a pattern, and, as well as with '/'
and '$', cannot be grouped inside parentheses. A '^'
which does not occur at the beginning of a rule or a
'$' which does not occur at the end of a rule loses its
special properties and is treated as a normal charac-
ter.
The following are illegal:
foo/bar$
<sc1>foo<sc2>bar
Note that the first of these, can be written
"foo/bar\n".
The following will result in '$' or '^' being treated
as a normal character:
foo|(bar$)
foo|^bar
If what's wanted is a "foo" or a bar-followed-by-a-
newline, the following could be used (the special '|'
action is explained below):
foo |
bar$ /* action goes here */
A similar trick will work for matching a foo or a bar-
at-the-beginning-of-a-line.
HOW THE INPUT IS MATCHED
When the generated scanner is run, it analyzes its input
looking for strings which match any of its patterns. If it
finds more than one match, it takes the one matching the
most text (for trailing context rules, this includes the
length of the trailing part, even though it will then be
returned to the input). If it finds two or more matches of
the same length, the rule listed first in the flex input
file is chosen.
Once the match is determined, the text corresponding to the
match (called the token) is made available in the global
character pointer yytext, and its length in the global
integer yyleng. The action corresponding to the matched pat-
tern is then executed (a more detailed description of
actions follows), and then the remaining input is scanned
for another match.
If no match is found, then the default rule is executed: the
next character in the input is considered matched and copied
to the standard output. Thus, the simplest legal flex input
is:
%%
which generates a scanner that simply copies its input (one
character at a time) to its output.
Note that yytext can be defined in two different ways:
either as a character pointer or as a character array. You
can control which definition flex uses by including one of
the special directives %pointer or %array in the first
(definitions) section of your flex input. The default is
%pointer, unless you use the -l lex compatibility option, in
which case yytext will be an array. The advantage of using
%pointer is substantially faster scanning and no buffer
overflow when matching very large tokens (unless you run out
of dynamic memory). The disadvantage is that you are res-
tricted in how your actions can modify yytext (see the next
section), and calls to the unput() function destroys the
present contents of yytext, which can be a considerable
porting headache when moving between different lex versions.
The advantage of %array is that you can then modify yytext
to your heart's content, and calls to unput() do not destroy
yytext (see below). Furthermore, existing lex programs
sometimes access yytext externally using declarations of the
form:
extern char yytext[];
This definition is erroneous when used with %pointer, but
correct for %array.
%array defines yytext to be an array of YYLMAX characters,
which defaults to a fairly large value. You can change the
size by simply #define'ing YYLMAX to a different value in
the first section of your flex input. As mentioned above,
with %pointer yytext grows dynamically to accommodate large
tokens. While this means your %pointer scanner can accommo-
date very large tokens (such as matching entire blocks of
comments), bear in mind that each time the scanner must
resize yytext it also must rescan the entire token from the
beginning, so matching such tokens can prove slow. yytext
presently does not dynamically grow if a call to unput()
results in too much text being pushed back; instead, a run-
time error results.
Also note that you cannot use %array with C++ scanner
classes (the c++ option; see below).
ACTIONS
Each pattern in a rule has a corresponding action, which can
be any arbitrary C statement. The pattern ends at the first
non-escaped whitespace character; the remainder of the line
is its action. If the action is empty, then when the pat-
tern is matched the input token is simply discarded. For
example, here is the specification for a program which
deletes all occurrences of "zap me" from its input:
%%
"zap me"
(It will copy all other characters in the input to the out-
put since they will be matched by the default rule.)
Here is a program which compresses multiple blanks and tabs
down to a single blank, and throws away whitespace found at
the end of a line:
%%
[ \t]+ putchar( ' ' );
[ \t]+$ /* ignore this token */
If the action contains a '{', then the action spans till the
balancing '}' is found, and the action may cross multiple
lines. flex knows about C strings and comments and won't be
fooled by braces found within them, but also allows actions
to begin with %{ and will consider the action to be all the
text up to the next %} (regardless of ordinary braces inside
the action).
An action consisting solely of a vertical bar ('|') means
"same as the action for the next rule." See below for an
illustration.
Actions can include arbitrary C code, including return
statements to return a value to whatever routine called
yylex(). Each time yylex() is called it continues processing
tokens from where it last left off until it either reaches
the end of the file or executes a return.
Actions are free to modify yytext except for lengthening it
(adding characters to its end--these will overwrite later
characters in the input stream). This however does not
apply when using %array (see above); in that case, yytext
may be freely modified in any way.
Actions are free to modify yyleng except they should not do
so if the action also includes use of yymore() (see below).
There are a number of special directives which can be
included within an action:
- ECHO copies yytext to the scanner's output.
- BEGIN followed by the name of a start condition places
the scanner in the corresponding start condition (see
below).
- REJECT directs the scanner to proceed on to the "second
best" rule which matched the input (or a prefix of the
input). The rule is chosen as described above in "How
the Input is Matched", and yytext and yyleng set up
appropriately. It may either be one which matched as
much text as the originally chosen rule but came later
in the flex input file, or one which matched less text.
For example, the following will both count the words in
the input and call the routine special() whenever
"frob" is seen:
int word_count = 0;
%%
frob special(); REJECT;
[^ \t\n]+ ++word_count;
Without the REJECT, any "frob"'s in the input would not
be counted as words, since the scanner normally exe-
cutes only one action per token. Multiple REJECT's are
allowed, each one finding the next best choice to the
currently active rule. For example, when the following
scanner scans the token "abcd", it will write "abcdab-
caba" to the output:
%%
a |
ab |
abc |
abcd ECHO; REJECT;
.|\n /* eat up any unmatched character */
(The first three rules share the fourth's action since
they use the special '|' action.) REJECT is a
particularly expensive feature in terms of scanner per-
formance; if it is used in any of the scanner's actions
it will slow down all of the scanner's matching.
Furthermore, REJECT cannot be used with the -Cf or -CF
options (see below).
Note also that unlike the other special actions, REJECT
is a branch; code immediately following it in the
action will not be executed.
- yymore() tells the scanner that the next time it
matches a rule, the corresponding token should be
appended onto the current value of yytext rather than
replacing it. For example, given the input "mega-
kludge" the following will write "mega-mega-kludge" to
the output:
%%
mega- ECHO; yymore();
kludge ECHO;
First "mega-" is matched and echoed to the output.
Then "kludge" is matched, but the previous "mega-" is
still hanging around at the beginning of yytext so the
ECHO for the "kludge" rule will actually write "mega-
kludge".
Two notes regarding use of yymore(). First, yymore() depends
on the value of yyleng correctly reflecting the size of the
current token, so you must not modify yyleng if you are
using yymore(). Second, the presence of yymore() in the
scanner's action entails a minor performance penalty in the
scanner's matching speed.
- yyless(n) returns all but the first n characters of the
current token back to the input stream, where they will
be rescanned when the scanner looks for the next match.
yytext and yyleng are adjusted appropriately (e.g.,
yyleng will now be equal to n ). For example, on the
input "foobar" the following will write out "foobar-
bar":
%%
foobar ECHO; yyless(3);
[a-z]+ ECHO;
An argument of 0 to yyless will cause the entire
current input string to be scanned again. Unless
you've changed how the scanner will subsequently pro-
cess its input (using BEGIN, for example), this will
result in an endless loop.
Note that yyless is a macro and can only be used in the flex
input file, not from other source files.
- unput(c) puts the character c back onto the input
stream. It will be the next character scanned. The
following action will take the current token and cause
it to be rescanned enclosed in parentheses.
{
int i;
/* Copy yytext because unput() trashes yytext */
char *yycopy = strdup( yytext );
unput( ')' );
for ( i = yyleng - 1; i >= 0; --i )
unput( yycopy[i] );
unput( '(' );
free( yycopy );
}
Note that since each unput() puts the given character
back at the beginning of the input stream, pushing back
strings must be done back-to-front.
An important potential problem when using unput() is that if
you are using %pointer (the default), a call to unput() des-
troys the contents of yytext, starting with its rightmost
character and devouring one character to the left with each
call. If you need the value of yytext preserved after a
call to unput() (as in the above example), you must either
first copy it elsewhere, or build your scanner using %array
instead (see How The Input Is Matched).
Finally, note that you cannot put back EOF to attempt to
mark the input stream with an end-of-file.
- input() reads the next character from the input stream.
For example, the following is one way to eat up C com-
ments:
%%
"/*" {
register int c;
for ( ; ; )
{
while ( (c = input()) != '*' &&
c != EOF )
; /* eat up text of comment */
if ( c == '*' )
{
while ( (c = input()) == '*' )
;
if ( c == '/' )
break; /* found the end */
}
if ( c == EOF )
{
error( "EOF in comment" );
break;
}
}
}
(Note that if the scanner is compiled using C++, then
input() is instead referred to as yyinput(), in order
to avoid a name clash with the C++ stream by the name
of input.)
- YY_FLUSH_BUFFER flushes the scanner's internal buffer
so that the next time the scanner attempts to match a
token, it will first refill the buffer using YY_INPUT
(see The Generated Scanner, below). This action is a
special case of the more general yy_flush_buffer()
function, described below in the section Multiple Input
Buffers.
- yyterminate() can be used in lieu of a return statement
in an action. It terminates the scanner and returns a
0 to the scanner's caller, indicating "all done". By
default, yyterminate() is also called when an end-of-
file is encountered. It is a macro and may be rede-
fined.
THE GENERATED SCANNER
The output of flex is the file lex.yy.c, which contains the
scanning routine yylex(), a number of tables used by it for
matching tokens, and a number of auxiliary routines and mac-
ros. By default, yylex() is declared as follows:
int yylex()
{
... various definitions and the actions in here ...
}
(If your environment supports function prototypes, then it
will be "int yylex( void )".) This definition may be
changed by defining the "YY_DECL" macro. For example, you
could use:
#define YY_DECL float lexscan( a, b ) float a, b;
to give the scanning routine the name lexscan, returning a
float, and taking two floats as arguments. Note that if you
give arguments to the scanning routine using a K&R-
style/non-prototyped function declaration, you must ter-
minate the definition with a semi-colon (;).
Whenever yylex() is called, it scans tokens from the global
input file yyin (which defaults to stdin). It continues
until it either reaches an end-of-file (at which point it
returns the value 0) or one of its actions executes a return
statement.
If the scanner reaches an end-of-file, subsequent calls are
undefined unless either yyin is pointed at a new input file
(in which case scanning continues from that file), or yyres-
tart() is called. yyrestart() takes one argument, a FILE *
pointer (which can be nil, if you've set up YY_INPUT to scan
from a source other than yyin), and initializes yyin for
scanning from that file. Essentially there is no difference
between just assigning yyin to a new input file or using
yyrestart() to do so; the latter is available for compati-
bility with previous versions of flex, and because it can be
used to switch input files in the middle of scanning. It
can also be used to throw away the current input buffer, by
calling it with an argument of yyin; but better is to use
YY_FLUSH_BUFFER (see above). Note that yyrestart() does not
reset the start condition to INITIAL (see Start Conditions,
below).
If yylex() stops scanning due to executing a return state-
ment in one of the actions, the scanner may then be called
again and it will resume scanning where it left off.
By default (and for purposes of efficiency), the scanner
uses block-reads rather than simple getc() calls to read
characters from yyin. The nature of how it gets its input
can be controlled by defining the YY_INPUT macro.
YY_INPUT's calling sequence is
"YY_INPUT(buf,result,max_size)". Its action is to place up
to max_size characters in the character array buf and return
in the integer variable result either the number of charac-
ters read or the constant YY_NULL (0 on Unix systems) to
indicate EOF. The default YY_INPUT reads from the global
file-pointer "yyin".
A sample definition of YY_INPUT (in the definitions section
of the input file):
%{
#define YY_INPUT(buf,result,max_size) \
{ \
int c = getchar(); \
result = (c == EOF) ? YY_NULL : (buf[0] = c, 1); \
}
%}
This definition will change the input processing to occur
one character at a time.
When the scanner receives an end-of-file indication from
YY_INPUT, it then checks the yywrap() function. If yywrap()
returns false (zero), then it is assumed that the function
has gone ahead and set up yyin to point to another input
file, and scanning continues. If it returns true (non-
zero), then the scanner terminates, returning 0 to its
caller. Note that in either case, the start condition
remains unchanged; it does not revert to INITIAL.
If you do not supply your own version of yywrap(), then you
must either use %option noyywrap (in which case the scanner
behaves as though yywrap() returned 1), or you must link
with -lfl to obtain the default version of the routine,
which always returns 1.
Three routines are available for scanning from in-memory
buffers rather than files: yy_scan_string(),
yy_scan_bytes(), and yy_scan_buffer(). See the discussion of
them below in the section Multiple Input Buffers.
The scanner writes its ECHO output to the yyout global
(default, stdout), which may be redefined by the user simply
by assigning it to some other FILE pointer.
START CONDITIONS
flex provides a mechanism for conditionally activating
rules. Any rule whose pattern is prefixed with "<sc>" will
only be active when the scanner is in the start condition
named "sc". For example,
<STRING>[^"]* { /* eat up the string body ... */
...
}
will be active only when the scanner is in the "STRING"
start condition, and
<INITIAL,STRING,QUOTE>\. { /* handle an escape ... */
...
}
will be active only when the current start condition is
either "INITIAL", "STRING", or "QUOTE".
Start conditions are declared in the definitions (first)
section of the input using unindented lines beginning with
either %s or %x followed by a list of names. The former
declares inclusive start conditions, the latter exclusive
start conditions. A start condition is activated using the
BEGIN action. Until the next BEGIN action is executed,
rules with the given start condition will be active and
rules with other start conditions will be inactive. If the
start condition is inclusive, then rules with no start con-
ditions at all will also be active. If it is exclusive,
then only rules qualified with the start condition will be
active. A set of rules contingent on the same exclusive
start condition describe a scanner which is independent of
any of the other rules in the flex input. Because of this,
exclusive start conditions make it easy to specify "mini-
scanners" which scan portions of the input that are syntac-
tically different from the rest (e.g., comments).
If the distinction between inclusive and exclusive start
conditions is still a little vague, here's a simple example
illustrating the connection between the two. The set of
rules:
%s example
%%
<example>foo do_something();
bar something_else();
is equivalent to
%x example
%%
<example>foo do_something();
<INITIAL,example>bar something_else();
Without the <INITIAL,example> qualifier, the bar pattern in
the second example wouldn't be active (i.e., couldn't match)
when in start condition example. If we just used <example>
to qualify bar, though, then it would only be active in
example and not in INITIAL, while in the first example it's
active in both, because in the first example the example
startion condition is an inclusive (%s) start condition.
Also note that the special start-condition specifier <*>
matches every start condition. Thus, the above example
could also have been written;
%x example
%%
<example>foo do_something();
<*>bar something_else();
The default rule (to ECHO any unmatched character) remains
active in start conditions. It is equivalent to:
<*>.|\n ECHO;
BEGIN(0) returns to the original state where only the rules
with no start conditions are active. This state can also be
referred to as the start-condition "INITIAL", so
BEGIN(INITIAL) is equivalent to BEGIN(0). (The parentheses
around the start condition name are not required but are
considered good style.)
BEGIN actions can also be given as indented code at the
beginning of the rules section. For example, the following
will cause the scanner to enter the "SPECIAL" start condi-
tion whenever yylex() is called and the global variable
enter_special is true:
int enter_special;
%x SPECIAL
%%
if ( enter_special )
BEGIN(SPECIAL);
<SPECIAL>blahblahblah
...more rules follow...
To illustrate the uses of start conditions, here is a
scanner which provides two different interpretations of a
string like "123.456". By default it will treat it as three
tokens, the integer "123", a dot ('.'), and the integer
"456". But if the string is preceded earlier in the line by
the string "expect-floats" it will treat it as a single
token, the floating-point number 123.456:
%{
#include <math.h>
%}
%s expect
%%
expect-floats BEGIN(expect);
<expect>[0-9]+"."[0-9]+ {
printf( "found a float, = %f\n",
atof( yytext ) );
}
<expect>\n {
/* that's the end of the line, so
* we need another "expect-number"
* before we'll recognize any more
* numbers
*/
BEGIN(INITIAL);
}
[0-9]+ {
printf( "found an integer, = %d\n",
atoi( yytext ) );
}
"." printf( "found a dot\n" );
Here is a scanner which recognizes (and discards) C comments
while maintaining a count of the current input line.
%x comment
%%
int line_num = 1;
"/*" BEGIN(comment);
<comment>[^*\n]* /* eat anything that's not a '*' */
<comment>"*"+[^*/\n]* /* eat up '*'s not followed by '/'s */
<comment>\n ++line_num;
<comment>"*"+"/" BEGIN(INITIAL);
This scanner goes to a bit of trouble to match as much text
as possible with each rule. In general, when attempting to
write a high-speed scanner try to match as much possible in
each rule, as it's a big win.
Note that start-conditions names are really integer values
and can be stored as such. Thus, the above could be
extended in the following fashion:
%x comment foo
%%
int line_num = 1;
int comment_caller;
"/*" {
comment_caller = INITIAL;
BEGIN(comment);
}
...
<foo>"/*" {
comment_caller = foo;
BEGIN(comment);
}
<comment>[^*\n]* /* eat anything that's not a '*' */
<comment>"*"+[^*/\n]* /* eat up '*'s not followed by '/'s */
<comment>\n ++line_num;
<comment>"*"+"/" BEGIN(comment_caller);
Furthermore, you can access the current start condition
using the integer-valued YY_START macro. For example, the
above assignments to comment_caller could instead be written
comment_caller = YY_START;
Flex provides YYSTATE as an alias for YY_START (since that
is what's used by AT&T lex).
Note that start conditions do not have their own name-space;
%s's and %x's declare names in the same fashion as
#define's.
Finally, here's an example of how to match C-style quoted
strings using exclusive start conditions, including expanded
escape sequences (but not including checking for a string
that's too long):
%x str
%%
char string_buf[MAX_STR_CONST];
char *string_buf_ptr;
\" string_buf_ptr = string_buf; BEGIN(str);
<str>\" { /* saw closing quote - all done */
BEGIN(INITIAL);
*string_buf_ptr = '\0';
/* return string constant token type and
* value to parser
*/
}
<str>\n {
/* error - unterminated string constant */
/* generate error message */
}
<str>\\[0-7]{1,3} {
/* octal escape sequence */
int result;
(void) sscanf( yytext + 1, "%o", &result );
if ( result > 0xff )
/* error, constant is out-of-bounds */
*string_buf_ptr++ = result;
}
<str>\\[0-9]+ {
/* generate error - bad escape sequence; something
* like '\48' or '\0777777'
*/
}
<str>\\n *string_buf_ptr++ = '\n';
<str>\\t *string_buf_ptr++ = '\t';
<str>\\r *string_buf_ptr++ = '\r';
<str>\\b *string_buf_ptr++ = '\b';
<str>\\f *string_buf_ptr++ = '\f';
<str>\\(.|\n) *string_buf_ptr++ = yytext[1];
<str>[^\\\n\"]+ {
char *yptr = yytext;
while ( *yptr )
*string_buf_ptr++ = *yptr++;
}
Often, such as in some of the examples above, you wind up
writing a whole bunch of rules all preceded by the same
start condition(s). Flex makes this a little easier and
cleaner by introducing a notion of start condition scope. A
start condition scope is begun with:
<SCs>{
where SCs is a list of one or more start conditions. Inside
the start condition scope, every rule automatically has the
prefix <SCs> applied to it, until a '}' which matches the
initial '{'. So, for example,
<ESC>{
"\\n" return '\n';
"\\r" return '\r';
"\\f" return '\f';
"\\0" return '\0';
}
is equivalent to:
<ESC>"\\n" return '\n';
<ESC>"\\r" return '\r';
<ESC>"\\f" return '\f';
<ESC>"\\0" return '\0';
Start condition scopes may be nested.
Three routines are available for manipulating stacks of
start conditions:
void yy_push_state(int new_state)
pushes the current start condition onto the top of the
start condition stack and switches to new_state as
though you had used BEGIN new_state (recall that start
condition names are also integers).
void yy_pop_state()
pops the top of the stack and switches to it via BEGIN.
int yy_top_state()
returns the top of the stack without altering the
stack's contents.
The start condition stack grows dynamically and so has no
built-in size limitation. If memory is exhausted, program
execution aborts.
To use start condition stacks, your scanner must include a
%option stack directive (see Options below).
MULTIPLE INPUT BUFFERS
Some scanners (such as those which support "include" files)
require reading from several input streams. As flex
scanners do a large amount of buffering, one cannot control
where the next input will be read from by simply writing a
YY_INPUT which is sensitive to the scanning context.
YY_INPUT is only called when the scanner reaches the end of
its buffer, which may be a long time after scanning a state-
ment such as an "include" which requires switching the input
source.
To negotiate these sorts of problems, flex provides a
mechanism for creating and switching between multiple input
buffers. An input buffer is created by using:
YY_BUFFER_STATE yy_create_buffer( FILE *file, int size )
which takes a FILE pointer and a size and creates a buffer
associated with the given file and large enough to hold size
characters (when in doubt, use YY_BUF_SIZE for the size).
It returns a YY_BUFFER_STATE handle, which may then be
passed to other routines (see below). The YY_BUFFER_STATE
type is a pointer to an opaque struct yy_buffer_state struc-
ture, so you may safely initialize YY_BUFFER_STATE variables
to ((YY_BUFFER_STATE) 0) if you wish, and also refer to the
opaque structure in order to correctly declare input buffers
in source files other than that of your scanner. Note that
the FILE pointer in the call to yy_create_buffer is only
used as the value of yyin seen by YY_INPUT; if you redefine
YY_INPUT so it no longer uses yyin, then you can safely pass
a nil FILE pointer to yy_create_buffer. You select a partic-
ular buffer to scan from using:
void yy_switch_to_buffer( YY_BUFFER_STATE new_buffer )
switches the scanner's input buffer so subsequent tokens
will come from new_buffer. Note that yy_switch_to_buffer()
may be used by yywrap() to set things up for continued scan-
ning, instead of opening a new file and pointing yyin at it.
Note also that switching input sources via either
yy_switch_to_buffer() or yywrap() does not change the start
condition.
void yy_delete_buffer( YY_BUFFER_STATE buffer )
is used to reclaim the storage associated with a buffer. (
buffer can be nil, in which case the routine does nothing.)
You can also clear the current contents of a buffer using:
void yy_flush_buffer( YY_BUFFER_STATE buffer )
This function discards the buffer's contents, so the next
time the scanner attempts to match a token from the buffer,
it will first fill the buffer anew using YY_INPUT.
yy_new_buffer() is an alias for yy_create_buffer(), provided
for compatibility with the C++ use of new and delete for
creating and destroying dynamic objects.
Finally, the YY_CURRENT_BUFFER macro returns a
YY_BUFFER_STATE handle to the current buffer.
Here is an example of using these features for writing a
scanner which expands include files (the <<EOF>> feature is
discussed below):
/* the "incl" state is used for picking up the name
* of an include file
*/
%x incl
%{
#define MAX_INCLUDE_DEPTH 10
YY_BUFFER_STATE include_stack[MAX_INCLUDE_DEPTH];
int include_stack_ptr = 0;
%}
%%
include BEGIN(incl);
[a-z]+ ECHO;
[^a-z\n]*\n? ECHO;
<incl>[ \t]* /* eat the whitespace */
<incl>[^ \t\n]+ { /* got the include file name */
if ( include_stack_ptr >= MAX_INCLUDE_DEPTH )
{
fprintf( stderr, "Includes nested too deeply" );
exit( 1 );
}
include_stack[include_stack_ptr++] =
YY_CURRENT_BUFFER;
yyin = fopen( yytext, "r" );
if ( ! yyin )
error( ... );
yy_switch_to_buffer(
yy_create_buffer( yyin, YY_BUF_SIZE ) );
BEGIN(INITIAL);
}
<<EOF>> {
if ( --include_stack_ptr < 0 )
{
yyterminate();
}
else
{
yy_delete_buffer( YY_CURRENT_BUFFER );
yy_switch_to_buffer(
include_stack[include_stack_ptr] );
}
}
Three routines are available for setting up input buffers
for scanning in-memory strings instead of files. All of
them create a new input buffer for scanning the string, and
return a corresponding YY_BUFFER_STATE handle (which you
should delete with yy_delete_buffer() when done with it).
They also switch to the new buffer using
yy_switch_to_buffer(), so the next call to yylex() will
start scanning the string.
yy_scan_string(const char *str)
scans a NUL-terminated string.
yy_scan_bytes(const char *bytes, int len)
scans len bytes (including possibly NUL's) starting at
location bytes.
Note that both of these functions create and scan a copy of
the string or bytes. (This may be desirable, since yylex()
modifies the contents of the buffer it is scanning.) You
can avoid the copy by using:
yy_scan_buffer(char *base, yy_size_t size)
which scans in place the buffer starting at base, con-
sisting of size bytes, the last two bytes of which must
be YY_END_OF_BUFFER_CHAR (ASCII NUL). These last two
bytes are not scanned; thus, scanning consists of
base[0] through base[size-2], inclusive.
If you fail to set up base in this manner (i.e., forget
the final two YY_END_OF_BUFFER_CHAR bytes), then
yy_scan_buffer() returns a nil pointer instead of
creating a new input buffer.
The type yy_size_t is an integral type to which you can
cast an integer expression reflecting the size of the
buffer.
END-OF-FILE RULES
The special rule "<<EOF>>" indicates actions which are to be
taken when an end-of-file is encountered and yywrap()
returns non-zero (i.e., indicates no further files to pro-
cess). The action must finish by doing one of four things:
- assigning yyin to a new input file (in previous ver-
sions of flex, after doing the assignment you had to
call the special action YY_NEW_FILE; this is no longer
necessary);
- executing a return statement;
- executing the special yyterminate() action;
- or, switching to a new buffer using
yy_switch_to_buffer() as shown in the example above.
<<EOF>> rules may not be used with other patterns; they may
only be qualified with a list of start conditions. If an
unqualified <<EOF>> rule is given, it applies to all start
conditions which do not already have <<EOF>> actions. To
specify an <<EOF>> rule for only the initial start condi-
tion, use
<INITIAL><<EOF>>
These rules are useful for catching things like unclosed
comments. An example:
%x quote
%%
...other rules for dealing with quotes...
<quote><<EOF>> {
error( "unterminated quote" );
yyterminate();
}
<<EOF>> {
if ( *++filelist )
yyin = fopen( *filelist, "r" );
else
yyterminate();
}
MISCELLANEOUS MACROS
The macro YY_USER_ACTION can be defined to provide an action
which is always executed prior to the matched rule's action.
For example, it could be #define'd to call a routine to con-
vert yytext to lower-case. When YY_USER_ACTION is invoked,
the variable yy_act gives the number of the matched rule
(rules are numbered starting with 1). Suppose you want to
profile how often each of your rules is matched. The fol-
lowing would do the trick:
#define YY_USER_ACTION ++ctr[yy_act]
where ctr is an array to hold the counts for the different
rules. Note that the macro YY_NUM_RULES gives the total
number of rules (including the default rule, even if you use
-s), so a correct declaration for ctr is:
int ctr[YY_NUM_RULES];
The macro YY_USER_INIT may be defined to provide an action
which is always executed before the first scan (and before
the scanner's internal initializations are done). For exam-
ple, it could be used to call a routine to read in a data
table or open a logging file.
The macro yy_set_interactive(is_interactive) can be used to
control whether the current buffer is considered interac-
tive. An interactive buffer is processed more slowly, but
must be used when the scanner's input source is indeed
interactive to avoid problems due to waiting to fill buffers
(see the discussion of the -I flag below). A non-zero value
in the macro invocation marks the buffer as interactive, a
zero value as non-interactive. Note that use of this macro
overrides %option always-interactive or %option never-
interactive (see Options below). yy_set_interactive() must
be invoked prior to beginning to scan the buffer that is (or
is not) to be considered interactive.
The macro yy_set_bol(at_bol) can be used to control whether
the current buffer's scanning context for the next token
match is done as though at the beginning of a line. A non-
zero macro argument makes rules anchored with
The macro YY_AT_BOL() returns true if the next token scanned
from the current buffer will have '^' rules active, false
otherwise.
In the generated scanner, the actions are all gathered in
one large switch statement and separated using YY_BREAK,
which may be redefined. By default, it is simply a "break",
to separate each rule's action from the following rule's.
Redefining YY_BREAK allows, for example, C++ users to
#define YY_BREAK to do nothing (while being very careful
that every rule ends with a "break" or a "return"!) to avoid
suffering from unreachable statement warnings where because
a rule's action ends with "return", the YY_BREAK is inacces-
sible.
VALUES AVAILABLE TO THE USER
This section summarizes the various values available to the
user in the rule actions.
- char *yytext holds the text of the current token. It
may be modified but not lengthened (you cannot append
characters to the end).
If the special directive %array appears in the first
section of the scanner description, then yytext is
instead declared char yytext[YYLMAX], where YYLMAX is a
macro definition that you can redefine in the first
section if you don't like the default value (generally
8KB). Using %array results in somewhat slower
scanners, but the value of yytext becomes immune to
calls to input() and unput(), which potentially destroy
its value when yytext is a character pointer. The
opposite of %array is %pointer, which is the default.
You cannot use %array when generating C++ scanner
classes (the -+ flag).
- int yyleng holds the length of the current token.
- FILE *yyin is the file which by default flex reads
from. It may be redefined but doing so only makes
sense before scanning begins or after an EOF has been
encountered. Changing it in the midst of scanning will
have unexpected results since flex buffers its input;
use yyrestart() instead. Once scanning terminates
because an end-of-file has been seen, you can assign
yyin at the new input file and then call the scanner
again to continue scanning.
- void yyrestart( FILE *new_file ) may be called to point
yyin at the new input file. The switch-over to the new
file is immediate (any previously buffered-up input is
lost). Note that calling yyrestart() with yyin as an
argument thus throws away the current input buffer and
continues scanning the same input file.
- FILE *yyout is the file to which ECHO actions are done.
It can be reassigned by the user.
- YY_CURRENT_BUFFER returns a YY_BUFFER_STATE handle to
the current buffer.
- YY_START returns an integer value corresponding to the
current start condition. You can subsequently use this
value with BEGIN to return to that start condition.
INTERFACING WITH YACC
One of the main uses of flex is as a companion to the yacc
parser-generator. yacc parsers expect to call a routine
named yylex() to find the next input token. The routine is
supposed to return the type of the next token as well as
putting any associated value in the global yylval. To use
flex with yacc, one specifies the -d option to yacc to
instruct it to generate the file y.tab.h containing defini-
tions of all the %tokens appearing in the yacc input. This
file is then included in the flex scanner. For example, if
one of the tokens is "TOK_NUMBER", part of the scanner might
look like:
%{
#include "y.tab.h"
%}
%%
[0-9]+ yylval = atoi( yytext ); return TOK_NUMBER;
OPTIONS
flex has the following options:
-b Generate backing-up information to lex.backup. This is
a list of scanner states which require backing up and
the input characters on which they do so. By adding
rules one can remove backing-up states. If all
backing-up states are eliminated and -Cf or -CF is
used, the generated scanner will run faster (see the -p
flag). Only users who wish to squeeze every last cycle
out of their scanners need worry about this option.
(See the section on Performance Considerations below.)
-c is a do-nothing, deprecated option included for POSIX
compliance.
-d makes the generated scanner run in debug mode. When-
ever a pattern is recognized and the global
yy_flex_debug is non-zero (which is the default), the
scanner will write to stderr a line of the form:
--accepting rule at line 53 ("the matched text")
The line number refers to the location of the rule in
the file defining the scanner (i.e., the file that was
fed to flex). Messages are also generated when the
scanner backs up, accepts the default rule, reaches the
end of its input buffer (or encounters a NUL; at this
point, the two look the same as far as the scanner's
concerned), or reaches an end-of-file.
-f specifies fast scanner. No table compression is done
and stdio is bypassed. The result is large but fast.
This option is equivalent to -Cfr (see below).
-h generates a "help" summary of flex's options to stdout
and then exits. -? and --help are synonyms for -h.
-i instructs flex to generate a case-insensitive scanner.
The case of letters given in the flex input patterns
will be ignored, and tokens in the input will be
matched regardless of case. The matched text given in
yytext will have the preserved case (i.e., it will not
be folded).
-l turns on maximum compatibility with the original AT&T
lex implementation. Note that this does not mean full
compatibility. Use of this option costs a considerable
amount of performance, and it cannot be used with the
-+, -f, -F, -Cf, or -CF options. For details on the
compatibilities it provides, see the section "Incompa-
tibilities With Lex And POSIX" below. This option also
results in the name YY_FLEX_LEX_COMPAT being #define'd
in the generated scanner.
-n is another do-nothing, deprecated option included only
for POSIX compliance.
-p generates a performance report to stderr. The report
consists of comments regarding features of the flex
input file which will cause a serious loss of perfor-
mance in the resulting scanner. If you give the flag
twice, you will also get comments regarding features
that lead to minor performance losses.
Note that the use of REJECT, %option yylineno, and
variable trailing context (see the Deficiencies / Bugs
section below) entails a substantial performance
penalty; use of yymore(), the ^ operator, and the -I
flag entail minor performance penalties.
-s causes the default rule (that unmatched scanner input
is echoed to stdout) to be suppressed. If the scanner
encounters input that does not match any of its rules,
it aborts with an error. This option is useful for
finding holes in a scanner's rule set.
-t instructs flex to write the scanner it generates to
standard output instead of lex.yy.c.
-v specifies that flex should write to stderr a summary of
statistics regarding the scanner it generates. Most of
the statistics are meaningless to the casual flex user,
but the first line identifies the version of flex (same
as reported by -V), and the next line the flags used
when generating the scanner, including those that are
on by default.
-w suppresses warning messages.
-B instructs flex to generate a batch scanner, the oppo-
site of interactive scanners generated by -I (see
below). In general, you use -B when you are certain
that your scanner will never be used interactively, and
you want to squeeze a little more performance out of
it. If your goal is instead to squeeze out a lot more
performance, you should be using the -Cf or -CF
options (discussed below), which turn on -B automati-
cally anyway.
-F specifies that the fast scanner table representation
should be used (and stdio bypassed). This representa-
tion is about as fast as the full table representation
(-f), and for some sets of patterns will be consider-
ably smaller (and for others, larger). In general, if
the pattern set contains both "keywords" and a catch-
all, "identifier" rule, such as in the set:
"case" return TOK_CASE;
"switch" return TOK_SWITCH;
...
"default" return TOK_DEFAULT;
[a-z]+ return TOK_ID;
then you're better off using the full table representa-
tion. If only the "identifier" rule is present and you
then use a hash table or some such to detect the key-
words, you're better off using -F.
This option is equivalent to -CFr (see below). It can-
not be used with -+.
-I instructs flex to generate an interactive scanner. An
interactive scanner is one that only looks ahead to
decide what token has been matched if it absolutely
must. It turns out that always looking one extra char-
acter ahead, even if the scanner has already seen
enough text to disambiguate the current token, is a bit
faster than only looking ahead when necessary. But
scanners that always look ahead give dreadful interac-
tive performance; for example, when a user types a new-
line, it is not recognized as a newline token until
they enter another token, which often means typing in
another whole line.
Flex scanners default to interactive unless you use the
-Cf or -CF table-compression options (see below).
That's because if you're looking for high-performance
you should be using one of these options, so if you
didn't, flex assumes you'd rather trade off a bit of
run-time performance for intuitive interactive
behavior. Note also that you cannot use -I in conjunc-
tion with -Cf or -CF. Thus, this option is not really
needed; it is on by default for all those cases in
which it is allowed.
You can force a scanner to not be interactive by using
-B (see above).
-L instructs flex not to generate #line directives.
Without this option, flex peppers the generated scanner
with #line directives so error messages in the actions
will be correctly located with respect to either the
original flex input file (if the errors are due to code
in the input file), or lex.yy.c (if the errors are
flex's fault -- you should report these sorts of errors
to the email address given below).
-T makes flex run in trace mode. It will generate a lot
of messages to stderr concerning the form of the input
and the resultant non-deterministic and deterministic
finite automata. This option is mostly for use in
maintaining flex.
-V prints the version number to stdout and exits. --ver-
sion is a synonym for -V.
-7 instructs flex to generate a 7-bit scanner, i.e., one
which can only recognized 7-bit characters in its
input. The advantage of using -7 is that the scanner's
tables can be up to half the size of those generated
using the -8 option (see below). The disadvantage is
that such scanners often hang or crash if their input
contains an 8-bit character.
Note, however, that unless you generate your scanner
using the -Cf or -CF table compression options, use of
-7 will save only a small amount of table space, and
make your scanner considerably less portable. Flex's
default behavior is to generate an 8-bit scanner unless
you use the -Cf or -CF, in which case flex defaults to
generating 7-bit scanners unless your site was always
configured to generate 8-bit scanners (as will often be
the case with non-USA sites). You can tell whether
flex generated a 7-bit or an 8-bit scanner by inspect-
ing the flag summary in the -v output as described
above.
Note that if you use -Cfe or -CFe (those table compres-
sion options, but also using equivalence classes as
discussed see below), flex still defaults to generating
an 8-bit scanner, since usually with these compression
options full 8-bit tables are not much more expensive
than 7-bit tables.
-8 instructs flex to generate an 8-bit scanner, i.e., one
which can recognize 8-bit characters. This flag is
only needed for scanners generated using -Cf or -CF, as
otherwise flex defaults to generating an 8-bit scanner
anyway.
See the discussion of -7 above for flex's default
behavior and the tradeoffs between 7-bit and 8-bit
scanners.
-+ specifies that you want flex to generate a C++ scanner
class. See the section on Generating C++ Scanners
below for details.
-C[aefFmr]
controls the degree of table compression and, more gen-
erally, trade-offs between small scanners and fast
scanners.
-Ca ("align") instructs flex to trade off larger tables
in the generated scanner for faster performance because
the elements of the tables are better aligned for
memory access and computation. On some RISC architec-
tures, fetching and manipulating longwords is more
efficient than with smaller-sized units such as short-
words. This option can double the size of the tables
used by your scanner.
-Ce directs flex to construct equivalence classes,
i.e., sets of characters which have identical lexical
properties (for example, if the only appearance of
digits in the flex input is in the character class
"[0-9]" then the digits '0', '1', ..., '9' will all be
put in the same equivalence class). Equivalence
classes usually give dramatic reductions in the final
table/object file sizes (typically a factor of 2-5) and
are pretty cheap performance-wise (one array look-up
per character scanned).
-Cf specifies that the full scanner tables should be
generated - flex should not compress the tables by tak-
ing advantages of similar transition functions for dif-
ferent states.
-CF specifies that the alternate fast scanner represen-
tation (described above under the -F flag) should be
used. This option cannot be used with -+.
-Cm directs flex to construct meta-equivalence classes,
which are sets of equivalence classes (or characters,
if equivalence classes are not being used) that are
commonly used together. Meta-equivalence classes are
often a big win when using compressed tables, but they
have a moderate performance impact (one or two "if"
tests and one array look-up per character scanned).
-Cr causes the generated scanner to bypass use of the
standard I/O library (stdio) for input. Instead of
calling fread() or getc(), the scanner will use the
read() system call, resulting in a performance gain
which varies from system to system, but in general is
probably negligible unless you are also using -Cf or
-CF. Using -Cr can cause strange behavior if, for exam-
ple, you read from yyin using stdio prior to calling
the scanner (because the scanner will miss whatever
text your previous reads left in the stdio input
buffer).
-Cr has no effect if you define YY_INPUT (see The Gen-
erated Scanner above).
A lone -C specifies that the scanner tables should be
compressed but neither equivalence classes nor meta-
equivalence classes should be used.
The options -Cf or -CF and -Cm do not make sense
together - there is no opportunity for meta-equivalence
classes if the table is not being compressed. Other-
wise the options may be freely mixed, and are cumula-
tive.
The default setting is -Cem, which specifies that flex
should generate equivalence classes and meta-
equivalence classes. This setting provides the highest
degree of table compression. You can trade off
faster-executing scanners at the cost of larger tables
with the following generally being true:
slowest & smallest
-Cem
-Cm
-Ce
-C
-C{f,F}e
-C{f,F}
-C{f,F}a
fastest & largest
Note that scanners with the smallest tables are usually
generated and compiled the quickest, so during develop-
ment you will usually want to use the default, maximal
compression.
-Cfe is often a good compromise between speed and size
for production scanners.
-ooutput
directs flex to write the scanner to the file output
instead of lex.yy.c. If you combine -o with the -t
option, then the scanner is written to stdout but its
#line directives (see the -L option above) refer to the
file output.
-Pprefix
changes the default yy prefix used by flex for all
globally-visible variable and function names to instead
be prefix. For example, -Pfoo changes the name of
yytext to footext. It also changes the name of the
default output file from lex.yy.c to lex.foo.c. Here
are all of the names affected:
yy_create_buffer
yy_delete_buffer
yy_flex_debug
yy_init_buffer
yy_flush_buffer
yy_load_buffer_state
yy_switch_to_buffer
yyin
yyleng
yylex
yylineno
yyout
yyrestart
yytext
yywrap
(If you are using a C++ scanner, then only yywrap and
yyFlexLexer are affected.) Within your scanner itself,
you can still refer to the global variables and func-
tions using either version of their name; but exter-
nally, they have the modified name.
This option lets you easily link together multiple flex
programs into the same executable. Note, though, that
using this option also renames yywrap(), so you now
must either provide your own (appropriately-named) ver-
sion of the routine for your scanner, or use %option
noyywrap, as linking with -lfl no longer provides one
for you by default.
-Sskeleton_file
overrides the default skeleton file from which flex
constructs its scanners. You'll never need this option
unless you are doing flex maintenance or development.
flex also provides a mechanism for controlling options
within the scanner specification itself, rather than from
the flex command-line. This is done by including %option
directives in the first section of the scanner specifica-
tion. You can specify multiple options with a single
%option directive, and multiple directives in the first sec-
tion of your flex input file.
Most options are given simply as names, optionally preceded
by the word "no" (with no intervening whitespace) to negate
their meaning. A number are equivalent to flex flags or
their negation:
7bit -7 option
8bit -8 option
align -Ca option
backup -b option
batch -B option
c++ -+ option
caseful or
case-sensitive opposite of -i (default)
case-insensitive or
caseless -i option
debug -d option
default opposite of -s option
ecs -Ce option
fast -F option
full -f option
interactive -I option
lex-compat -l option
meta-ecs -Cm option
perf-report -p option
read -Cr option
stdout -t option
verbose -v option
warn opposite of -w option
(use "%option nowarn" for -w)
array equivalent to "%array"
pointer equivalent to "%pointer" (default)
Some %option's provide features otherwise not available:
always-interactive
instructs flex to generate a scanner which always con-
siders its input "interactive". Normally, on each new
input file the scanner calls isatty() in an attempt to
determine whether the scanner's input source is
interactive and thus should be read a character at a
time. When this option is used, however, then no such
call is made.
main directs flex to provide a default main() program for
the scanner, which simply calls yylex(). This option
implies noyywrap (see below).
never-interactive
instructs flex to generate a scanner which never con-
siders its input "interactive" (again, no call made to
isatty()). This is the opposite of always-interactive.
stack
enables the use of start condition stacks (see Start
Conditions above).
stdinit
if set (i.e., %option stdinit) initializes yyin and
yyout to stdin and stdout, instead of the default of
nil. Some existing lex programs depend on this
behavior, even though it is not compliant with ANSI C,
which does not require stdin and stdout to be compile-
time constant.
yylineno
directs flex to generate a scanner that maintains the
number of the current line read from its input in the
global variable yylineno. This option is implied by
%option lex-compat.
yywrap
if unset (i.e., %option noyywrap), makes the scanner
not call yywrap() upon an end-of-file, but simply
assume that there are no more files to scan (until the
user points yyin at a new file and calls yylex()
again).
flex scans your rule actions to determine whether you use
the REJECT or yymore() features. The reject and yymore
options are available to override its decision as to whether
you use the options, either by setting them (e.g., %option
reject) to indicate the feature is indeed used, or unsetting
them to indicate it actually is not used (e.g., %option
noyymore).
Three options take string-delimited values, offset with '=':
%option outfile="ABC"
is equivalent to -oABC, and
%option prefix="XYZ"
is equivalent to -PXYZ. Finally,
%option yyclass="foo"
only applies when generating a C++ scanner ( -+ option). It
informs flex that you have derived foo as a subclass of
yyFlexLexer, so flex will place your actions in the member
function foo::yylex() instead of yyFlexLexer::yylex(). It
also generates a yyFlexLexer::yylex() member function that
emits a run-time error (by invoking
yyFlexLexer::LexerError()) if called. See Generating C++
Scanners, below, for additional information.
A number of options are available for lint purists who want
to suppress the appearance of unneeded routines in the gen-
erated scanner. Each of the following, if unset (e.g.,
%option nounput ), results in the corresponding routine not
appearing in the generated scanner:
input, unput
yy_push_state, yy_pop_state, yy_top_state
yy_scan_buffer, yy_scan_bytes, yy_scan_string
(though yy_push_state() and friends won't appear anyway
unless you use %option stack).
PERFORMANCE CONSIDERATIONS
The main design goal of flex is that it generate high-
performance scanners. It has been optimized for dealing
well with large sets of rules. Aside from the effects on
scanner speed of the table compression -C options outlined
above, there are a number of options/actions which degrade
performance. These are, from most expensive to least:
REJECT
%option yylineno
arbitrary trailing context
pattern sets that require backing up
%array
%option interactive
%option always-interactive
'^' beginning-of-line operator
yymore()
with the first three all being quite expensive and the last
two being quite cheap. Note also that unput() is imple-
mented as a routine call that potentially does quite a bit
of work, while yyless() is a quite-cheap macro; so if just
putting back some excess text you scanned, use yyless().
REJECT should be avoided at all costs when performance is
important. It is a particularly expensive option.
Getting rid of backing up is messy and often may be an enor-
mous amount of work for a complicated scanner. In princi-
pal, one begins by using the -b flag to generate a
lex.backup file. For example, on the input
%%
foo return TOK_KEYWORD;
foobar return TOK_KEYWORD;
the file looks like:
State #6 is non-accepting -
associated rule line numbers:
2 3
out-transitions: [ o ]
jam-transitions: EOF [ \001-n p-\177 ]
State #8 is non-accepting -
associated rule line numbers:
3
out-transitions: [ a ]
jam-transitions: EOF [ \001-` b-\177 ]
State #9 is non-accepting -
associated rule line numbers:
3
out-transitions: [ r ]
jam-transitions: EOF [ \001-q s-\177 ]
Compressed tables always back up.
The first few lines tell us that there's a scanner state in
which it can make a transition on an 'o' but not on any
other character, and that in that state the currently
scanned text does not match any rule. The state occurs when
trying to match the rules found at lines 2 and 3 in the
input file. If the scanner is in that state and then reads
something other than an 'o', it will have to back up to find
a rule which is matched. With a bit of headscratching one
can see that this must be the state it's in when it has seen
"fo". When this has happened, if anything other than
another 'o' is seen, the scanner will have to back up to
simply match the 'f' (by the default rule).
The comment regarding State #8 indicates there's a problem
when "foob" has been scanned. Indeed, on any character
other than an 'a', the scanner will have to back up to
accept "foo". Similarly, the comment for State #9 concerns
when "fooba" has been scanned and an 'r' does not follow.
The final comment reminds us that there's no point going to
all the trouble of removing backing up from the rules unless
we're using -Cf or -CF, since there's no performance gain
doing so with compressed scanners.
The way to remove the backing up is to add "error" rules:
%%
foo return TOK_KEYWORD;
foobar return TOK_KEYWORD;
fooba |
foob |
fo {
/* false alarm, not really a keyword */
return TOK_ID;
}
Eliminating backing up among a list of keywords can also be
done using a "catch-all" rule:
%%
foo return TOK_KEYWORD;
foobar return TOK_KEYWORD;
[a-z]+ return TOK_ID;
This is usually the best solution when appropriate.
Backing up messages tend to cascade. With a complicated set
of rules it's not uncommon to get hundreds of messages. If
one can decipher them, though, it often only takes a dozen
or so rules to eliminate the backing up (though it's easy to
make a mistake and have an error rule accidentally match a
valid token. A possible future flex feature will be to
automatically add rules to eliminate backing up).
It's important to keep in mind that you gain the benefits of
eliminating backing up only if you eliminate every instance
of backing up. Leaving just one means you gain nothing.
Variable trailing context (where both the leading and trail-
ing parts do not have a fixed length) entails almost the
same performance loss as REJECT (i.e., substantial). So
when possible a rule like:
%%
mouse|rat/(cat|dog) run();
is better written:
%%
mouse/cat|dog run();
rat/cat|dog run();
or as
%%
mouse|rat/cat run();
mouse|rat/dog run();
Note that here the special '|' action does not provide any
savings, and can even make things worse (see Deficiencies /
Bugs below).
Another area where the user can increase a scanner's perfor-
mance (and one that's easier to implement) arises from the
fact that the longer the tokens matched, the faster the
scanner will run. This is because with long tokens the pro-
cessing of most input characters takes place in the (short)
inner scanning loop, and does not often have to go through
the additional work of setting up the scanning environment
(e.g., yytext) for the action. Recall the scanner for C
comments:
%x comment
%%
int line_num = 1;
"/*" BEGIN(comment);
<comment>[^*\n]*
<comment>"*"+[^*/\n]*
<comment>\n ++line_num;
<comment>"*"+"/" BEGIN(INITIAL);
This could be sped up by writing it as:
%x comment
%%
int line_num = 1;
"/*" BEGIN(comment);
<comment>[^*\n]*
<comment>[^*\n]*\n ++line_num;
<comment>"*"+[^*/\n]*
<comment>"*"+[^*/\n]*\n ++line_num;
<comment>"*"+"/" BEGIN(INITIAL);
Now instead of each newline requiring the processing of
another action, recognizing the newlines is "distributed"
over the other rules to keep the matched text as long as
possible. Note that adding rules does not slow down the
scanner! The speed of the scanner is independent of the
number of rules or (modulo the considerations given at the
beginning of this section) how complicated the rules are
with regard to operators such as '*' and '|'.
A final example in speeding up a scanner: suppose you want
to scan through a file containing identifiers and keywords,
one per line and with no other extraneous characters, and
recognize all the keywords. A natural first approach is:
%%
asm |
auto |
break |
... etc ...
volatile |
while /* it's a keyword */
.|\n /* it's not a keyword */
To eliminate the back-tracking, introduce a catch-all rule:
%%
asm |
auto |
break |
... etc ...
volatile |
while /* it's a keyword */
[a-z]+ |
.|\n /* it's not a keyword */
Now, if it's guaranteed that there's exactly one word per
line, then we can reduce the total number of matches by a
half by merging in the recognition of newlines with that of
the other tokens:
%%
asm\n |
auto\n |
break\n |
... etc ...
volatile\n |
while\n /* it's a keyword */
[a-z]+\n |
.|\n /* it's not a keyword */
One has to be careful here, as we have now reintroduced
backing up into the scanner. In particular, while we know
that there will never be any characters in the input stream
other than letters or newlines, flex can't figure this out,
and it will plan for possibly needing to back up when it has
scanned a token like "auto" and then the next character is
something other than a newline or a letter. Previously it
would then just match the "auto" rule and be done, but now
it has no "auto" rule, only a "auto\n" rule. To eliminate
the possibility of backing up, we could either duplicate all
rules but without final newlines, or, since we never expect
to encounter such an input and therefore don't how it's
classified, we can introduce one more catch-all rule, this
one which doesn't include a newline:
%%
asm\n |
auto\n |
break\n |
... etc ...
volatile\n |
while\n /* it's a keyword */
[a-z]+\n |
[a-z]+ |
.|\n /* it's not a keyword */
Compiled with -Cf, this is about as fast as one can get a
flex scanner to go for this particular problem.
A final note: flex is slow when matching NUL's, particu-
larly when a token contains multiple NUL's. It's best to
write rules which match short amounts of text if it's anti-
cipated that the text will often include NUL's.
Another final note regarding performance: as mentioned above
in the section How the Input is Matched, dynamically resiz-
ing yytext to accommodate huge tokens is a slow process
because it presently requires that the (huge) token be res-
canned from the beginning. Thus if performance is vital,
you should attempt to match "large" quantities of text but
not "huge" quantities, where the cutoff between the two is
at about 8K characters/token.
GENERATING C++ SCANNERS
flex provides two different ways to generate scanners for
use with C++. The first way is to simply compile a scanner
generated by flex using a C++ compiler instead of a C com-
piler. You should not encounter any compilations errors
(please report any you find to the email address given in
the Author section below). You can then use C++ code in
your rule actions instead of C code. Note that the default
input source for your scanner remains yyin, and default
echoing is still done to yyout. Both of these remain FILE *
variables and not C++ streams.
You can also use flex to generate a C++ scanner class, using
the -+ option (or, equivalently, %option c++), which is
automatically specified if the name of the flex executable
ends in a '+', such as flex++. When using this option, flex
defaults to generating the scanner to the file lex.yy.cc
instead of lex.yy.c. The generated scanner includes the
header file FlexLexer.h, which defines the interface to two
C++ classes.
The first class, FlexLexer, provides an abstract base class
defining the general scanner class interface. It provides
the following member functions:
const char* YYText()
returns the text of the most recently matched token,
the equivalent of yytext.
int YYLeng()
returns the length of the most recently matched token,
the equivalent of yyleng.
int lineno() const
returns the current input line number (see %option
yylineno), or 1 if %option yylineno was not used.
void set_debug( int flag )
sets the debugging flag for the scanner, equivalent to
assigning to yy_flex_debug (see the Options section
above). Note that you must build the scanner using
%option debug to include debugging information in it.
int debug() const
returns the current setting of the debugging flag.
Also provided are member functions equivalent to
yy_switch_to_buffer(), yy_create_buffer() (though the first
argument is an istream* object pointer and not a FILE*),
yy_flush_buffer(), yy_delete_buffer(), and yyrestart()
(again, the first argument is a istream* object pointer).
The second class defined in FlexLexer.h is yyFlexLexer,
which is derived from FlexLexer. It defines the following
additional member functions:
yyFlexLexer( istream* arg_yyin = 0, ostream* arg_yyout = 0 )
constructs a yyFlexLexer object using the given streams
for input and output. If not specified, the streams
default to cin and cout, respectively.
virtual int yylex()
performs the same role is yylex() does for ordinary
flex scanners: it scans the input stream, consuming
tokens, until a rule's action returns a value. If you
derive a subclass S from yyFlexLexer and want to access
the member functions and variables of S inside yylex(),
then you need to use %option yyclass="S" to inform flex
that you will be using that subclass instead of yyFlex-
Lexer. In this case, rather than generating
yyFlexLexer::yylex(), flex generates S::yylex() (and
also generates a dummy yyFlexLexer::yylex() that calls
yyFlexLexer::LexerError() if called).
virtual void switch_streams(istream* new_in = 0,
ostream* new_out = 0) reassigns yyin to new_in (if
non-nil) and yyout to new_out (ditto), deleting the
previous input buffer if yyin is reassigned.
int yylex( istream* new_in, ostream* new_out = 0 )
first switches the input streams via switch_streams(
new_in, new_out ) and then returns the value of
yylex().
In addition, yyFlexLexer defines the following protected
virtual functions which you can redefine in derived classes
to tailor the scanner:
virtual int LexerInput( char* buf, int max_size )
reads up to max_size characters into buf and returns
the number of characters read. To indicate end-of-
input, return 0 characters. Note that "interactive"
scanners (see the -B and -I flags) define the macro
YY_INTERACTIVE. If you redefine LexerInput() and need
to take different actions depending on whether or not
the scanner might be scanning an interactive input
source, you can test for the presence of this name via
#ifdef.
virtual void LexerOutput( const char* buf, int size )
writes out size characters from the buffer buf, which,
while NUL-terminated, may also contain "internal" NUL's
if the scanner's rules can match text with NUL's in
them.
virtual void LexerError( const char* msg )
reports a fatal error message. The default version of
this function writes the message to the stream cerr and
exits.
Note that a yyFlexLexer object contains its entire scanning
state. Thus you can use such objects to create reentrant
scanners. You can instantiate multiple instances of the
same yyFlexLexer class, and you can also combine multiple
C++ scanner classes together in the same program using the
-P option discussed above.
Finally, note that the %array feature is not available to
C++ scanner classes; you must use %pointer (the default).
Here is an example of a simple C++ scanner:
// An example of using the flex C++ scanner class.
%{
int mylineno = 0;
%}
string \"[^\n"]+\"
ws [ \t]+
alpha [A-Za-z]
dig [0-9]
name ({alpha}|{dig}|\$)({alpha}|{dig}|[_.\-/$])*
num1 [-+]?{dig}+\.?([eE][-+]?{dig}+)?
num2 [-+]?{dig}*\.{dig}+([eE][-+]?{dig}+)?
number {num1}|{num2}
%%
{ws} /* skip blanks and tabs */
"/*" {
int c;
while((c = yyinput()) != 0)
{
if(c == '\n')
++mylineno;
else if(c == '*')
{
if((c = yyinput()) == '/')
break;
else
unput(c);
}
}
}
{number} cout << "number " << YYText() << '\n';
\n mylineno++;
{name} cout << "name " << YYText() << '\n';
{string} cout << "string " << YYText() << '\n';
%%
int main( int /* argc */, char** /* argv */ )
{
FlexLexer* lexer = new yyFlexLexer;
while(lexer->yylex() != 0)
;
return 0;
}
If you want to create multiple (different) lexer classes,
you use the -P flag (or the prefix= option) to rename each
yyFlexLexer to some other xxFlexLexer. You then can include
<FlexLexer.h> in your other sources once per lexer class,
first renaming yyFlexLexer as follows:
#undef yyFlexLexer
#define yyFlexLexer xxFlexLexer
#include <FlexLexer.h>
#undef yyFlexLexer
#define yyFlexLexer zzFlexLexer
#include <FlexLexer.h>
if, for example, you used %option prefix="xx" for one of
your scanners and %option prefix="zz" for the other.
IMPORTANT: the present form of the scanning class is experi-
mental and may change considerably between major releases.
INCOMPATIBILITIES WITH LEX AND POSIX
flex is a rewrite of the AT&T Unix lex tool (the two imple-
mentations do not share any code, though), with some exten-
sions and incompatibilities, both of which are of concern to
those who wish to write scanners acceptable to either imple-
mentation. Flex is fully compliant with the POSIX lex
specification, except that when using %pointer (the
default), a call to unput() destroys the contents of yytext,
which is counter to the POSIX specification.
In this section we discuss all of the known areas of incom-
patibility between flex, AT&T lex, and the POSIX specifica-
tion.
flex's -l option turns on maximum compatibility with the
original AT&T lex implementation, at the cost of a major
loss in the generated scanner's performance. We note below
which incompatibilities can be overcome using the -l option.
flex is fully compatible with lex with the following excep-
tions:
- The undocumented lex scanner internal variable yylineno
is not supported unless -l or %option yylineno is used.
yylineno should be maintained on a per-buffer basis,
rather than a per-scanner (single global variable)
basis.
yylineno is not part of the POSIX specification.
- The input() routine is not redefinable, though it may
be called to read characters following whatever has
been matched by a rule. If input() encounters an end-
of-file the normal yywrap() processing is done. A
``real'' end-of-file is returned by input() as EOF.
Input is instead controlled by defining the YY_INPUT
macro.
The flex restriction that input() cannot be redefined
is in accordance with the POSIX specification, which
simply does not specify any way of controlling the
scanner's input other than by making an initial assign-
ment to yyin.
- The unput() routine is not redefinable. This restric-
tion is in accordance with POSIX.
- flex scanners are not as reentrant as lex scanners. In
particular, if you have an interactive scanner and an
interrupt handler which long-jumps out of the scanner,
and the scanner is subsequently called again, you may
get the following message:
fatal flex scanner internal error--end of buffer missed
To reenter the scanner, first use
yyrestart( yyin );
Note that this call will throw away any buffered input;
usually this isn't a problem with an interactive
scanner.
Also note that flex C++ scanner classes are reentrant,
so if using C++ is an option for you, you should use
them instead. See "Generating C++ Scanners" above for
details.
- output() is not supported. Output from the ECHO macro
is done to the file-pointer yyout (default stdout).
output() is not part of the POSIX specification.
- lex does not support exclusive start conditions (%x),
though they are in the POSIX specification.
- When definitions are expanded, flex encloses them in
parentheses. With lex, the following:
NAME [A-Z][A-Z0-9]*
%%
foo{NAME}? printf( "Found it\n" );
%%
will not match the string "foo" because when the macro
is expanded the rule is equivalent to "foo[A-Z][A-Z0-
9]*?" and the precedence is such that the '?' is asso-
ciated with "[A-Z0-9]*". With flex, the rule will be
expanded to "foo([A-Z][A-Z0-9]*)?" and so the string
"foo" will match.
Note that if the definition begins with ^ or ends with
$ then it is not expanded with parentheses, to allow
these operators to appear in definitions without losing
their special meanings. But the <s>, /, and <<EOF>>
operators cannot be used in a flex definition.
Using -l results in the lex behavior of no parentheses
around the definition.
The POSIX specification is that the definition be
enclosed in parentheses.
- Some implementations of lex allow a rule's action to
begin on a separate line, if the rule's pattern has
trailing whitespace:
%%
foo|bar<space here>
{ foobar_action(); }
flex does not support this feature.
- The lex %r (generate a Ratfor scanner) option is not
supported. It is not part of the POSIX specification.
- After a call to unput(), yytext is undefined until the
next token is matched, unless the scanner was built
using %array. This is not the case with lex or the
POSIX specification. The -l option does away with this
incompatibility.
- The precedence of the {} (numeric range) operator is
different. lex interprets "abc{1,3}" as "match one,
two, or three occurrences of 'abc'", whereas flex
interprets it as "match 'ab' followed by one, two, or
three occurrences of 'c'". The latter is in agreement
with the POSIX specification.
- The precedence of the ^ operator is different. lex
interprets "^foo|bar" as "match either 'foo' at the
beginning of a line, or 'bar' anywhere", whereas flex
interprets it as "match either 'foo' or 'bar' if they
come at the beginning of a line". The latter is in
agreement with the POSIX specification.
- The special table-size declarations such as %a sup-
ported by lex are not required by flex scanners; flex
ignores them.
- The name FLEX_SCANNER is #define'd so scanners may be
written for use with either flex or lex. Scanners also
include YY_FLEX_MAJOR_VERSION and YY_FLEX_MINOR_VERSION
indicating which version of flex generated the scanner
(for example, for the 2.5 release, these defines would
be 2 and 5 respectively).
The following flex features are not included in lex or the
POSIX specification:
C++ scanners
%option
start condition scopes
start condition stacks
interactive/non-interactive scanners
yy_scan_string() and friends
yyterminate()
yy_set_interactive()
yy_set_bol()
YY_AT_BOL()
<<EOF>>
<*>
YY_DECL
YY_START
YY_USER_ACTION
YY_USER_INIT
#line directives
%{}'s around actions
multiple actions on a line
plus almost all of the flex flags. The last feature in the
list refers to the fact that with flex you can put multiple
actions on the same line, separated with semi-colons, while
with lex, the following
foo handle_foo(); ++num_foos_seen;
is (rather surprisingly) truncated to
foo handle_foo();
flex does not truncate the action. Actions that are not
enclosed in braces are simply terminated at the end of the
line.
DIAGNOSTICS
warning, rule cannot be matched indicates that the given
rule cannot be matched because it follows other rules that
will always match the same text as it. For example, in the
following "foo" cannot be matched because it comes after an
identifier "catch-all" rule:
[a-z]+ got_identifier();
foo got_foo();
Using REJECT in a scanner suppresses this warning.
warning, -s option given but default rule can be matched
means that it is possible (perhaps only in a particular
start condition) that the default rule (match any single
character) is the only one that will match a particular
input. Since -s was given, presumably this is not intended.
reject_used_but_not_detected undefined or
yymore_used_but_not_detected undefined - These errors can
occur at compile time. They indicate that the scanner uses
REJECT or yymore() but that flex failed to notice the fact,
meaning that flex scanned the first two sections looking for
occurrences of these actions and failed to find any, but
somehow you snuck some in (via a #include file, for exam-
ple). Use %option reject or %option yymore to indicate to
flex that you really do use these features.
flex scanner jammed - a scanner compiled with -s has encoun-
tered an input string which wasn't matched by any of its
rules. This error can also occur due to internal problems.
token too large, exceeds YYLMAX - your scanner uses %array
and one of its rules matched a string longer than the YYLMAX
constant (8K bytes by default). You can increase the value
by #define'ing YYLMAX in the definitions section of your
flex input.
scanner requires -8 flag to use the character 'x' - Your
scanner specification includes recognizing the 8-bit charac-
ter 'x' and you did not specify the -8 flag, and your
scanner defaulted to 7-bit because you used the -Cf or -CF
table compression options. See the discussion of the -7
flag for details.
flex scanner push-back overflow - you used unput() to push
back so much text that the scanner's buffer could not hold
both the pushed-back text and the current token in yytext.
Ideally the scanner should dynamically resize the buffer in
this case, but at present it does not.
input buffer overflow, can't enlarge buffer because scanner
uses REJECT - the scanner was working on matching an
extremely large token and needed to expand the input buffer.
This doesn't work with scanners that use REJECT.
fatal flex scanner internal error--end of buffer missed -
This can occur in an scanner which is reentered after a
long-jump has jumped out (or over) the scanner's activation
frame. Before reentering the scanner, use:
yyrestart( yyin );
or, as noted above, switch to using the C++ scanner class.
too many start conditions in <> you listed more start condi-
tions in a <> construct than exist (so you must have listed
at least one of them twice).
FILES
-lfl library with which scanners must be linked.
lex.yy.c
generated scanner (called lexyy.c on some systems).
lex.yy.cc
generated C++ scanner class, when using -+.
<FlexLexer.h>
header file defining the C++ scanner base class, Flex-
Lexer, and its derived class, yyFlexLexer.
flex.skl
skeleton scanner. This file is only used when building
flex, not when flex executes.
lex.backup
backing-up information for -b flag (called lex.bck on
some systems).
DEFICIENCIES / BUGS
Some trailing context patterns cannot be properly matched
and generate warning messages ("dangerous trailing con-
text"). These are patterns where the ending of the first
part of the rule matches the beginning of the second part,
such as "zx*/xy*", where the 'x*' matches the 'x' at the
beginning of the trailing context. (Note that the POSIX
draft states that the text matched by such patterns is unde-
fined.)
For some trailing context rules, parts which are actually
fixed-length are not recognized as such, leading to the
abovementioned performance loss. In particular, parts using
'|' or {n} (such as "foo{3}") are always considered
variable-length.
Combining trailing context with the special '|' action can
result in fixed trailing context being turned into the more
expensive variable trailing context. For example, in the
following:
%%
abc |
xyz/def
Use of unput() invalidates yytext and yyleng, unless the
%array directive or the -l option has been used.
Pattern-matching of NUL's is substantially slower than
matching other characters.
Dynamic resizing of the input buffer is slow, as it entails
rescanning all the text matched so far by the current (gen-
erally huge) token.
Due to both buffering of input and read-ahead, you cannot
intermix calls to <stdio.h> routines, such as, for example,
getchar(), with flex rules and expect it to work. Call
input() instead.
The total table entries listed by the -v flag excludes the
number of table entries needed to determine what rule has
been matched. The number of entries is equal to the number
of DFA states if the scanner does not use REJECT, and some-
what greater than the number of states if it does.
REJECT cannot be used with the -f or -F options.
The flex internal algorithms need documentation.
SEE ALSO
lex(1), yacc(1), sed(1), awk(1).
John Levine, Tony Mason, and Doug Brown, Lex & Yacc,
O'Reilly and Associates. Be sure to get the 2nd edition.
M. E. Lesk and E. Schmidt, LEX - Lexical Analyzer Generator
Alfred Aho, Ravi Sethi and Jeffrey Ullman, Compilers: Prin-
ciples, Techniques and Tools, Addison-Wesley (1986).
Describes the pattern-matching techniques used by flex
(deterministic finite automata).
AUTHOR
Vern Paxson, with the help of many ideas and much inspira-
tion from Van Jacobson. Original version by Jef Poskanzer.
The fast table representation is a partial implementation of
a design done by Van Jacobson. The implementation was done
by Kevin Gong and Vern Paxson.
Thanks to the many flex beta-testers, feedbackers, and con-
tributors, especially Francois Pinard, Casey Leedom, Robert
Abramovitz, Stan Adermann, Terry Allen, David Barker-
Plummer, John Basrai, Neal Becker, Nelson H.F. Beebe,
[email protected], Karl Berry, Peter A. Bigot, Simon Blanchard,
Keith Bostic, Frederic Brehm, Ian Brockbank, Kin Cho, Nick
Christopher, Brian Clapper, J.T. Conklin, Jason Coughlin,
Bill Cox, Nick Cropper, Dave Curtis, Scott David Daniels,
Chris G. Demetriou, Theo Deraadt, Mike Donahue, Chuck
Doucette, Tom Epperly, Leo Eskin, Chris Faylor, Chris
Flatters, Jon Forrest, Jeffrey Friedl, Joe Gayda, Kaveh R.
Ghazi, Wolfgang Glunz, Eric Goldman, Christopher M. Gould,
Ulrich Grepel, Peer Griebel, Jan Hajic, Charles Hemphill,
NORO Hideo, Jarkko Hietaniemi, Scott Hofmann, Jeff Honig,
Dana Hudes, Eric Hughes, John Interrante, Ceriel Jacobs,
Michal Jaegermann, Sakari Jalovaara, Jeffrey R. Jones, Henry
Juengst, Klaus Kaempf, Jonathan I. Kamens, Terrence O Kane,
Amir Katz, [email protected], Kevin B. Kenny, Steve Kirsch,
Winfried Koenig, Marq Kole, Ronald Lamprecht, Greg Lee,
Rohan Lenard, Craig Leres, John Levine, Steve Liddle, David
Loffredo, Mike Long, Mohamed el Lozy, Brian Madsen, Malte,
Joe Marshall, Bengt Martensson, Chris Metcalf, Luke Mewburn,
Jim Meyering, R. Alexander Milowski, Erik Naggum, G.T.
Nicol, Landon Noll, James Nordby, Marc Nozell, Richard
Ohnemus, Karsten Pahnke, Sven Panne, Roland Pesch, Walter
Pelissero, Gaumond Pierre, Esmond Pitt, Jef Poskanzer, Joe
Rahmeh, Jarmo Raiha, Frederic Raimbault, Pat Rankin, Rick
Richardson, Kevin Rodgers, Kai Uwe Rommel, Jim Roskind,
Alberto Santini, Andreas Scherer, Darrell Schiebel, Raf
Schietekat, Doug Schmidt, Philippe Schnoebelen, Andreas
Schwab, Larry Schwimmer, Alex Siegel, Eckehard Stolz, Jan-
Erik Strvmquist, Mike Stump, Paul Stuart, Dave Tallman, Ian
Lance Taylor, Chris Thewalt, Richard M. Timoney, Jodi Tsai,
Paul Tuinenga, Gary Weik, Frank Whaley, Gerhard Wilhelms,
Kent Williams, Ken Yap, Ron Zellar, Nathan Zelle, David
Zuhn, and those whose names have slipped my marginal mail-
archiving skills but whose contributions are appreciated all
the same.
Thanks to Keith Bostic, Jon Forrest, Noah Friedman, John
Gilmore, Craig Leres, John Levine, Bob Mulcahy, G.T. Nicol,
Francois Pinard, Rich Salz, and Richard Stallman for help
with various distribution headaches.
Thanks to Esmond Pitt and Earle Horton for 8-bit character
support; to Benson Margulies and Fred Burke for C++ support;
to Kent Williams and Tom Epperly for C++ class support; to
Ove Ewerlid for support of NUL's; and to Eric Hughes for
support of multiple buffers.
This work was primarily done when I was with the Real Time
Systems Group at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory in Berke-
ley, CA. Many thanks to all there for the support I
received.
Send comments to [email protected].
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